Quranism
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Qur'an only Islam
Within Islam the two largest sects are the Sunnis (up to 90%)[1][2][3][4][5] and Shi'ites (approximately 10-20%).[1][6][4][5] Together they make up almost the entirety of Islam. However, there is a small heretical group who are collectively known as "Qur'anists" (also referred to as Quraniyoon, Ahle Quran, or hadith rejectors). They reject the Hadith (oral traditions) and the Sunnah (example) of Muhammad, an integral part of Islam, and are viewed by mainstream Islam in much the same way as the Jehovah's Witnesses are viewed by mainstream Christianity (i.e. Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox etc).
Rejected as Apostates
According to Sunni and Shi'ite orthodoxy, the hadith literature is an integral part of the Muslim faith. The 11th century Andalusian Maliki theologian and scholar Yusuf ibn abd al-Barr wrote in his Jami' Bayan al-'Ilm wa Fadlihi جـامع بـيـان أخذ العـلم وفضلـه (Compendium Exposing the Nature of Knowledge and Its Immense Merit):
According to many high-ranking figures at Al-Azhar University, a highly respected authority in Sunni Islam (and who also accept Shi'ite fiqh as a fifth school of Islamic thought),[7] Qur'anists are not Muslims:
. . .
Dr. Mohamed Said Tantawy, the Sheikh of AL-Azhar replied saying that those who call for relying only on the wholly Quran are ignorant, lairs, and do not know religious rules because the ideas in the Sunna came from God, but it was put into words by the prophet (Peace be upon him). Moreover, Sunna explains and clarify the rules mention as in the wholly Quran.
. . .
Dr. Mahmoud Ashour, a member of the Committee of Islamic Research, that the Sunna is indeed a source of the Islamic Sharia, and that those who deny it are illogical because it is impossible to understand Islam with the Sunna. Dr. Ashour stresses that denying the Sunna costs the Quranists to lose their faith. He then called to protect Islam against those Quranists who plan to destroy Islam and pose the greatest threat on Islam and Muslims. He finally accused the Quranists to be spies and agents for other forces to aim at destroying Islam from Inside, but God will protect his religion as he promised.
. . .
Contemporary scholars such as Gibril Haddad have commented on the apostatic nature of a wholesale denial of the probativeness of the Sunnah according to Sunni Orthodoxy, writing "it cannot be imagined that one reject the entire probativeness of the Sunna and remain a Muslim".[8]
The Grand Mufti of Pakistan Muhammad Rafi Usmani has also criticised Qur'anists in his lecture Munkareen Hadith (refuters of Hadith); he states:
Problems with Quranism
A major problem with the Quranist understanding of Islam is the central place that the Messenger, Muhammad, plays in the Qu'ran. The Qur'an alleges that it is entirely composed of Allah’s commands, not Muhammad’s, yet the Qur'an itself orders Muslims to obey the Messenger.
This verse somewhat begs the question of what, exactly, it is that the Messenger commands, since the Qur'anists themselves subscribe to the idea that the Qur'an is the word of Allah (God) himself and not just Muhammad's inspired word. The Qur’an also commands Muslims to follow the Messenger’s example, yet the only place this example is established is in the Sunnah. Without the Hadith, one cannot know Muhammad. Without knowing Muhammad, there is no Uswa Hasana. Doubting the hadith thus opens up multiple lines of doubt about entirety of Islam. If one rejects the hadiths, that in-turn rejects Islam as a system by going against the orders of the Qur'an and, in the eyes of most Muslims, renders the rejecter an apostate/murtad/kafir (whichever may apply). Ultimately, to remain faithful to Allah and the Qur'an in the traditional sense, there is no alternative to the Sunnah of the prophet as embodied in the hadith.
Islam means submission (contrary to popular belief that it means peace), and more specifically it means submission to the will of Allah. Qur'an-only Muslims believe that the Qur'an clearly defines what exactly Allah's will is. But the case is not so clear.
For one thing, the Qur'an is full of contradictory verses and commands; sometimes commanding believers to seek out and kill pagans (Quran 9:5), other times commanding Muslims to leave pagans to practice their polytheistic religions in peace (Quran 109:1-6). Without the Hadith and the Sirah to give context to the Asbab al-Nuzul (Revelational Circumstances of the Quran) , the doctrine of Abrogation becomes untenable as there exists no clear timeline of which verses were revealed at which time and the Qur'an itself provides little to no evidence in this regard. The pacifist can decide to take from it a peaceful message by deliberately ignoring or twisting violent verses whereas the sadist can easily interpret a violent message by focusing on such verses as are found in Surah 9. Both Muslims could be selectively justified by the Qur'an because of its contradictory messages from Muhammad-in-Mecca versus Muhammad-in-Medina.
If one rejects the Hadith (ie. Bukhari, Muslim, Abu Dawud), the Tafsir (e.g. Ibn Kathir, Ibn Abbas, al-Jalalayn, Maududi), and the History (ie. al-Tabari, Ibn Sa'd, al-Waqidi, Ibn Ishaq), then the entire historical context of the Qur'an, along with proof of Muhammad's existence is lost. It simply becomes an ancient Arabic document of partially incoherent, repetitive, and often-times confusing statements and commands. The reader is left with such questions as: "Who wrote this and why?" and "Who is Abu Lahab, and why are he and his wife going to be tortured?" and "Why don't these stories match the ones found in the Bible?" and "Who is 'Isa?".
The often-levelled charge by the Qur'an-only sects that "Sunni's and Shi'ite's are following a deviant form of Islam by introducing these man-made books," is also questionable, considering most of the narrators of hadith are the very same people who passed down the Qur'an itself. The first Muslims (Sahabah- companions of Muhammad, which include all four Rightly Guided Caliphs) who partook in the Hijra to Medina, were not Qur'an-only Muslims as far as we can tell, nor the generation of Muslims that followed the death of Muhammad (the Tabi'un). As far back as the Rashidun Caliphs, the idea of "Sunnah" was salient although this idea changed rapidly in the first centuries of Islam. Recording and sorting through these narrations in written form was to codify and clarify already existing beliefs - though admittedly much later than the time of Muhammad, with the majority of compilations recorded in the 9th century (for a history on this, see the Britannica entry on Hadith), leading to many Mawdu' (Fabricated) and Da'if (Weak) Hadiths being recorded.
It can be argued that Qur'an only Muslims often reject the Hadith, a fundamental aspect of mainstream Islam, simply due to it preserving the norms of the early Islamic community which are in flagrant contradiction to modern, liberal mores around consent, sexuality, freedom of belief, and human rights. They may deny this as the reason behind their rejection of Hadith, but this appears to fit the idea by many Quranists who accept Hadith essentially as a historical source for the emergence of Islam but dismiss it as a religious or law-giving one. Critics argue this approach is logically unfeasible - either the Hadith are a valid source of information for Muslims, or they are not. One should not be able to pick and choose which bits to keep and which bits to ignore when the 'good' and the 'bad' all originate from the same sources.
Other verses
The message (Qur'an) is explained and elaborated upon by the Prophet. Preserving the message (Qur'an) also requires preserving the Sunnah which explains the message, as the previous verse states.
This verse asks Muslims to follow everything Mohammad gives them, and abstain from everything he forbids. That means they are commanded by Allah to follow the Sunnah.
The following verse also describes him as “a good exemplar (uswatun ḥasanatun) for those who place their hope on God and the Last Day and invoke God often”, suggesting followers emulate him in general,[9] which is of course impossible to do without his personal traits and actions (which rarely alluded to in the Qur'an alone) being recorded as extra-Qur'anic traditions.
The Sahabah / Companions of the prophet
Alongside instructions to obey Muhammad, we see his followers are also to function as an exemplary beacon for the rest of humanity[10] in the Qur'an, giving way to mawqūf hadith, i.e. hadith from the companions of Muhammad / aṣ-ṣaḥābah,[11] often referred to as 'The Sahabah' (where the isnad does not go all the way to Muhammad directly). As recordings of this are needed for future generations to know what the community was doing at the time.
Five Pillars of Islam
The concept "5 pillars in Islam" is practiced and preached widely in the Muslim world and is a crucial part of the Muslim way of life. Yet this concept is not described or defined in the Qur'an in any way. It is only found in the hadith. Looking at the pillars individually, four out of five of Islam’s Pillars would not make any sense without the Hadith, therefore making Islam impossible to practice.
Shahadah
1. To testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and Muhammad is Allah’s Apostle.”
These are Muhammad's words and are not found within the Qur'an. Therefore, Islam’s First Pillar is without basis in the absence of the works of Muslim historians Ibn Ishaq (704-770 AD) and al-Tabari (838-923 AD). If there is no definition as to what the Shahadah should be (or indeed if there is one at all), it can be any arbitrary phrase in any language (or not be carried out at all). In fact there are at-least three different shahadahs used by various Qur'anist sects.
Salah
Once again, the Qur'an does not provide all of the needed guidance. The “compulsory congregational prayer” is not described in the Qur’an at all. In fact, the Qur’an number of prayers could be interpreted several ways (Qur'anists do not even agree upon the number of daily prayers that should be offered. The various number of prayers should be offered are 0, 2, 3 or 5),[12] and none of which depict exactly how to pray, while the hadith clarify five. The only explanation of the obligatory prostration is found in the Sunnah, i.e. Muslims are performing a ritual without Qur’anic precedence. Also in the prayer itself, certain Arabic recitations and verses are recited. The Qur'an does not give specifications for these recitations so unless one follows hadiths and traditions, the recitations can be anything for a Qur'anist.
Zakat
The terms of the Zakat are omitted from the Qur’an. The first to commit them to paper was Ishaq. A century later than that, Tabari referenced Ishaq’s Hadith. This practice is without basis in the Qur'an by itself.
Hajj
This is also missing instructions, as well as the purpose for the rituals described in the Quran.[13] The only full explanations of the Hajj are found in the Sunnah. No aspect of the pilgrimage can be performed without referencing the Hadith. Muslims would not have this ritual without the Sunnah.
Sawm
Sawm, the final pillar of Islam is also not described in the Qur'an, the “perfect, detailed, and final revelation to mankind”. Though the Qur'an describes the fast, without the Hadith, Muslims wouldn’t know why they are fasting. The accounts of the meaning of Ramadan are in the Traditions, initially chronicled by Ibn Ishaq and then copied by the hadith compliers such as Bukhari, Muslim etc. and historians/exegetes like Al-Tabari.
Strangely, the one pillar that is actually described in the most detail in the Qur'an, is actually a borrowed pagan ritual Qusayy invented pre-dating Muhammad's Islam. Qusayy's family took a cut on merchandise sold during the “truce of the gods” fairs of Ramadan.
Islamic Law
This issue continues into many different aspects of Islamic law, as Islamic Scholar Michael Cook notes:
The bulk of Islamic law as it actually evolved is thus non-Koranic in substance. Some of what is missing is supplied from the innumerable traditions regarding the sayings and doings of Muhammad. A typical example of such a tradition was given in Chapter 2: at the conquest of Khaybar, Muhammad is said to have declared the eating of the flesh of the domesticated ass forbidden. At the same time, the lawyers had to rely, in one way or another, on their own legal reasoning. All this would bulk large in any survey of Islamic law as such; here, however, I shall focus on such law as there is in the Koran.
Although it does not add up to a comprehensive law-code, the Koranic treatment of law covers a wide range of subject-matter. In the first place, it deals with specifically religious rituals and duties: washing, prayer, almsgiving, fasting, and pilgrimage to the sanctuary. The treatment is uneven; thus the instructions on the fast are fairly full, whereas no indication is given as to how much alms a believer should give. It is nonetheless clear from the way in which the topics are treated that God's interest as a lawgiver is not confined to generalities.
For example, the believer in preparing himself for prayer is specifically instructed to wash his arms up to the elbows, and to wipe his feet to the ankles. In the second place, the Koran discusses a range of less narrowly religious aspects of law: marriage, divorce, inheritance, homicide, theft, usury, the drinking of wine, and the like.
Again, the treatment is uneven: thieves are to be punished by having their hands cut off, but the fate of the unrepentant usurer is not prescribed (though he receives a dire warning that he will find himself at war with God and His messenger)..Sunni-Shia Split
There is nothing mentioned about how religious leaders are rightfully meant to be chosen, nor how religious laws are meant to be administered. With no direct instructions for a successor, or how to chose one (or them) in the Quran, there was a civil war almost immediately after Muhammad's death - which according to traditional accounts lead to the Sunni-Shia split. A quick summary of this can be read in this history.com article.
There is no actual direct concept of a political caliph (khilafah) in the Quran, which is central to both of the two most widespread branches of Islam, Sunni and Shi'i Islam. One can see all the ways this word is used on Quran Corpus here in the 'noun' sections, denoting general successors rather than the political leader of the Muslim community. In fact the term did not denote a distinct political or religious institution during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad. It began to acquire its later meaning and to take shape as an institution after Muhammad’s death.[14]
Other issues
Characters in the Quran
There are also characters supposedly contemporary to Muhammad such as Abu Lahab (Quran 111:1 (and his wife Quran 111:4)) and Zayd (Quran 33:37), who have no equivalents in biblical literature to refer to, that are named but not introduced formally - so the meaning of the verses and who they are is highly obscure (if not impossible to understand fully) without secondary literature.
Abrogation
Scholars of Islam developed the principle of Naskh (Abrogation) which is used to reconcile seemingly contradictory commandments (e.g. see: List of Abrogations in the Qur'an) in the Quran. This is where an earlier verse is 'abrogated' by new verses, and becomes no longer valid as the latest verse now applies.
The main issue specifically for Quranists is that the Quran itself does not come in chronological order of the time of revelation, but mostly follows a pattern of longer Surahs at the beginning getting shorter as one goes through the book. Only by using extra-Quranic material from traditions is it possible to come up with an order to know which ruling would abrogate which.
For example, many classical Islamic scholars (such as Ibn Kathir)[15] believe that the verse commanding women to be confined to house arrest until death for a vague 'lewdness' (l-fāḥishata) charge:
Was then abrogated by a newly mentioned punishment for adultery:
But there is no obvious way to reconcile this without the extra traditions.
Verses that have no meaning and/or make no sense
Many verses lack any clear meaning without further context, a few (of many) are given below. For example it is impossible to know what the following verses are talking about by themselves (tafsirs generally link them to angels, though the third verse is sometimes also linked to humans reciting the Quran).[16][17]
Then those who drive away with reproof. And those who recite a reminder.
Lo! Your Lord is surely One.”Similarly the versus below are often given fanciful/mythological explanations by commentators, far beyond would ever be possible to gather from the Quran itself:[18] [19]
And a book inscribed, In parchment spread open,
And the frequented houseAnd again.
by those that swim serenely, and those that outstrip suddenly, And those who glide swimming, And those who race each other (in) a race,
by those that direct an affair!And.
And those that strike violently, And those that revive by quickening,
And those that distinguish distinctly,And.
Then by oath of those which carry the burdens. Then by oath of those which move with ease.
Then by oath of those which distribute by the command.As well as (see the expansive explanation in Tafsir Al-Jalalayn).[20]
There is no explanation of what the ten nights are.
Nor the four months.
Nor the seven 'oft-repeated verses'.
In Islamic tradition the consensus view is that these seven verses relate to the seven verses of the opening surah al-Fātiha, as to be used as units of every prayer; which nothing in the text itself suggests, and there have been other minority opinions.[21] Interestingly Allah is meant to be the speaker of all verses, so without extra-qur'anic material one would simply be left with a statement of prayer to himself, and no instruction/explanation of the reason for its inclusion (as a ritual prayer).
1:2 Praise be to Allah, Lord of the worlds 1:3 The merciful and compassionate 1:4 Ruler of the day of judgment 1:5 [It is thee] we serve and [it is thee] we implore for help 1:6 Guide us to (or show us) the path of the straight (i.e., righteous)
1:7 Path of those whom you favor, not those who anger you and not those who have gone astrayThe same issue occurs with the final two 'prayer' surahs, 113 (Quran 113:1-5) and 114 (Quran 114:1-6), although these at least open with the statement 'say' (qul قول')[22] however there is no context given for why, when and where they are supposed to be said found in the Qur'an.
In fact this happens to many verses throughout the Qur'an, where only later traditions clarify that the whole book is meant to be from Allah, and not just the parts of it that can be gained from reading the Qur'an alone; such as swearing oaths on himself, angels speaking, and the regular (and unnaturally sounding) third person voice.
Not mentioned are also verses that seem to be spoken by the jinn in surah 72 (surah al-jinn)[23] beginning from verse 8 onwards, which one would not see as coming from Allah without extra-Quranic appeals.Even the whole of Surah 105 (Surah of the Elephant) is left unexplained, which we have to look to traditions and commentaries for the meaning and what it is referring to.[24]
Did He not put their scheme into ruin? and send against them flocks of birds. Which hit them with stones of baked clay,
thus making them like chewed-up straw?As are the first four verses of surah 90, as there is nothing to link the oath with the city of Mecca and it's meaning to Muhammad without extra-Quranic material.
And you (are) free (to dwell) in this city. And the begetter and what he begot.
Certainly, We have created man (to be) in hardship.Criticism of hadiths
Critics wonder why if these secondary texts/examples/revelations, which include the hadith as well as biographies of the prophet, are so important, they could not simply be included in the main holy book to avoid ambiguity and misleading scripture (not to mention schisms in sects across Islam). Especially when the Qur'an is claiming it is the preserved word of God - yet extra secondary revelations are needed to understand it and add to it, with many contradicting each other (see Contradictions in the Hadith and further examples from a Muslim website here) as well as the Qur'an itself (as this Islamic website shows), not to mention science (Scientific Errors in the Hadith) and common sense (see Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars: Remarkable and Strange Islamic Traditions).
The entire method of verifying isnads[25] (a chain of narrators leading back to the prophet or his companions), and therefore the hadith, as being classed as authentic, good, weak or fabricated is also never mentioned in the Qur'an. These tell the reader whether they should be followed or not, so are of utter importance to the religion. However as Britannica notes, these are also a non-contemporary (to Muhammad or early companion's of his) invention:
This has resulted in many different large collections across different books, which examining them all and personally scrutinising these chains being such an enormous task, it is usually simply left to scholars to issue rulings on matters, rather than a personal reading.
Dr Joshua Little, on Dr. Javad T. Hashmi's YouTube channel gives a brief overview of 21 core reasons historians are skeptical of their historical value and accuracy in the video Oxford Scholar Dr. Joshua Little Gives 21 REASONS Why Historians are SKEPTICAL of Hadith. The list as he notes is in order of the weakest reasons to the strongest, i.e. the most damming points are found later in the video. As Joshua notes at 1:32:10, the first seven are the most trivial in comparison (though are still highly problematic and important to understand, and give context to the rest). If their historical value is of doubt then so are key parts of both Sunni and Shia scripture.
Timestamps:
- 0:00 Introduction
- 4:43 Hadith compared to other sources of history
- 12:15 Transmission of hadith vs Transmission of the Qur'an
- 15:46 Difference between oral and written preservation
- 18:42 Discussion on skepticism and revisionism
- 35:42 Meta-historiography; traditionalist dismissal that skepticism is fringe and outdated
- 42:22 Prior probability of false ascription in religious-historical material
- 47:13 The earliest extant collections were recensions from the ninth century onwards
- 56:23 Hadith are full of contradictions
- 1:03:51 A large number of hadith suspiciously look exactly like later religious sectarian, political, tribal, familial, and other partisan, polemical and apologetic creations
- 1:08:45 Hadith talking about later terms, later institutions, later events, and later phenomena.
- 1:11:51 Putative supernatural explanations for texts have a vanishingly low prior probability of explaining the existence of these reports
- 1:27:48 Reports of mass fabrication
- 1:32:04 Isnads rose relatively late, and became widespread even later
- 1:44:33 Early usage of the word Sunnah was a generic notion of sunnah as good practice, which was not specifically Prophetical, and was independent of hadith
- 1:52:44 A rapid numerical growth in hadith can be observed
- 1:57:01 Absence of Hadith in early sources
- 1:59:49 Retrojection of hadith; ratio of cited hadith changes from mostly ascribed to followers then to companions then to the Prophet
- 2:09:02 Various peculiar correlations, descriptions, and content that don't make sense as a product of genuine historical transmission but make more sense as a product of later debates and later ascription preferences
- 2:17:45 Hadith contradicting earlier literary and archeological sources
- 2:21:08 Orality means less precision in transmission
- 2:31:17 Extreme variation, early rapid mutation and distortion across the hadith corpus
- 2:34:28 Artificial literary or narrative elements; Recurring topoi
- 2:37:53 Hadith exhibit telltale signs of storyteller construction
- 2:40:25 Exegetical reports about the context of the Quran are exegesis in disguise
- 2:45:32 Recurring disconnect between the Hadith and the Qur'an in terms of historical memory
- 2:50:30 There was no effective method for distinguishing between authentic and inauthentic hadith
- 2:58:03 Conclusion
In a separate video on the channel Sképsislamica, Joshua Little defends accepting a historical Muhammad as being the founder of Islam despite the issue's with hadith, called Did Muhammad Exist? An Academic response to a Popular Question, where from ~20:00 - 1:37:39, he elaborates on these, but this time focusing on biographical hadith, with the points raised adding even more weight to the arguments against their accuracy.
Additional Points
Differences between the Meccan - Medinan Split
As Mark Durie notes, there are stark differences between the Meccan and Medinan split of the role of Muhammad, in which he goes from a mere 'warner' to a military leader of a new theocracy requiring complete obedience alongside God.
[...] After the transition, the community of believers becomes dissociated from disbelievers, who are not to be taken as “allies.” The believers are a more regulated community, which now “commands right and forbids wrong,” exercising authority even over disbelievers. The Messenger’s function also changes after the transition, when he assumes a position of command over believers, whose duty is no longer merely to listen to the Messenger and believe, but to obey, giving him their total personal allegiance (Sinai 2015–2016, 68). The community is now to “obey Alla¯h and (obey) His/the Messenger,” for “Whoever obeys the Messenger has obeyed Alla¯h” (Q4:80).15 It is striking that the formula “obey Alla¯h and (obey) His/the Messenger” appears 21 times in post-transitional sūrahs but never in pre-transitional sūrahs. The phrase “Alla¯h and the/his Messenger” joins the authority of the Messenger to that of Alla¯h.16 “Alla¯h” is conjoined with “the/his Messenger” (and sometimes “messengers”) 97 times after the transition, in 16 of the 23 post-transitional sūrahs, but only twice before the transition (Q72:23 and Q7:158). [...]
[...] Before the transition the emphasis is on believing Alla¯h’s warnings through the Messenger, and responding to these warnings by doing good deeds. After the transition the emphasis is on obedience in conformity to the specific instructions—the “limits”—brought by the Messenger, who is paired with Alla¯h in authority over believers.Which is when the Qur'an shows this development, creating problems for Quranists. Critics content this change in theology shows a man-made difference in response to the surrounding circumstances rather than a consistent God as is claimed in Quran 35:43 (But you will never find in the way of Allah any change, and you will never find in the way of Allah any alteration).
See Also
External Links
- Debate - Edip Yuksel vs. Ali Sina - Dr. Edip Yuksel, is a prominent member of the submitters (Qur'an-Only Muslims).
- The Jinn that Took Solomon's Ring - Hassan Radwan - YouTube video on a problematic verse for Quran-only Muslims
Links from Muslims
- Issues Concerning Ḥadīth - collection of articles dealing with hadith criticism, from the Muslim site Islamic Awareness
- A Look at Hadith Rejecters' Claims - from the Muslim site TheModernReligion, filed under "Pseudo-Islam Cults"
- Combat Kit To Use Against the "Quran Only" Muslims (article by a Muslim)
- The Importance of Hadith in Islam - by Professor Shahul Hameed, consultant for IslamOnline.net
- Various Issues About Hadiths - by Shaykh Gibril Fouad Haddad
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Comparison of Sunni and Shia Islam - ReligionFacts
- ↑ Islām - Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)
- ↑ Sunnite - Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population - Pew Research Center, October 7, 2009
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Tracy Miller - Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population - Pew Research Center, October 2009
- ↑ Shīʿite - Encyclopædia Britannica Online (2010)
- ↑ al-Azhar Verdict on the Shia - Shi'ite Encyclopedia v2.0, Al-islam
- ↑ Gibril Haddad - The Sunna as Evidence: The Probativeness of the Sunna - Living Islam, August, 1999
- ↑ Sinai, Nicolai. “Muhammad as an Episcopal Figure.” Arabica, vol. 65, no. 1-2, Brill Academic Publishers, 2018, pp. 1–30. PP13. https://doi.org/10.1163/15700585-12341480
- ↑ al-ʿālamūn pl. | the world-dwellers Entry. Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 526). Princeton University Press. Instead, it is preferable to understand the assumed universal role of Muhammad and his followers in line with Q 2:143, 22:78, and 3:110: the Qur’anic believers are to function as an exemplary beacon for the rest of humanity, as “the best community ever brought forth for people, enjoining right and dissuading from wrong” (Q 3:110: kuntum khayra ummatin ukhrijat li-l-nāsi taʾmurūna bi-l-maʿrūfi wa-tanhawna ʿani l-munkari), and as a “middle” or “intermediate” community (ummah wasaṭ) who will be “witnesses” over the remainder of humankind, just as the Qur’anic Messenger functions as a “witness” (shahīd) over the Qur’anic believers (Q 2:143, similarly 22:78).
- ↑ IRSYAD AL-HADITH SERIES 76: MAWQUF(الموقوف) HADITH. MUHAMMAD MUSHFIQUE BIN AHMAD AYOUP. 2016. Mufti of Federal Territories Office.
- ↑ Quranism. Wikipedia. Accessed 02/02/24.
- ↑ Muhammad (Past Masters) Michael Cook. 1996 (Revision of 1983 original) 9780192876058 (ISBN10: 0192876058). (Kindle Locations 469-487). Kindle Edition.
- ↑ Caliph Entry | Definition & History | Britannica | Professor Asma Afsaruddin
- ↑ Ibn Kathir Tafsir on Verse 4:15. Ibn Kathir d.1373
- ↑ Tafsir Jalalayn on verse 31:1. Al Jalalayn / Jalal ad-Din al-Maḥalli and Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti. Published in 1505.
- ↑ Tafsir Ibn Kathir on Verse 37:1-5. Ibn Kathir d 1373.
- ↑ Tafsir Ibn Kathir on Verse 52:1-16. Ibn Kathir d. 1373.
- ↑ Tafsir Jalalayn on verse 52:4. Al Jalalayn / Jalal ad-Din al-Maḥalli and Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti. Published in 1505.
- ↑ Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on Verse 34:38. Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864 ah / 1459 ce) and Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 ah / 1505 ce)
- ↑ See Islamic commentaries for verse 15:87
- ↑ قول - Lane's Lexicon pp. 2294
- ↑ Durie, Mark. The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion pp. 25. (pp. 116 Kindle Edition). Lexington Books. ..There are conversations reported between the Messenger and others and between believers and disbelievers, and there are often rapid switches between different conversations. There are even conversations where jinn speak to each other (Q72)...
- ↑ E.g. Tafsir Jalalayn on verse 105:1. (Al Jalalayn / Jalal ad-Din al-Maḥalli and Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti. Published in 1505.) summarises the general story.
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/topic/isnad